1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to the production of chiral organic compounds via catalyzed reactions. More particularly, the present invention relates to a catalytic system that includes both a metal catalyzed hydrogen-transfer system and an enzyme or microbial catalyzed oxidation system, and a process of using this system for the production of optically active amino acids.
2. Brief Description of Related Technology
Traditional chemical catalysis generally refers to processes in which chemical reactions are catalyzed by acids, bases, metals, metal salts or organometallic compounds, while biocatalysis is used to describe reactions catalyzed by proteins, enzymes, other biomolecules, or microorganisms. Traditional chemical catalysis has long been used in the chemical industry for production of petro chemicals, fine chemicals, and specialty chemicals. Although fermentation has long been applied in the manufacture of certain commodity chemicals, more recently biocatalysis has focused on the production of high value fine chemicals, especially chiral chemical intermediates for pharmaceuticals, and other biologically active agents.
Each type of catalysis has its advantages and shortcomings. Traditional chemical catalysis generally involves high temperature, high pressure, and low chemical selectivity, but typically is cost effective and efficient. Biocatalysis works under mild reaction conditions with high chemical selectivity and stereoselectivity, but is usually associated with high cost. These two types of catalysis are usually applied in quite different processes and are rarely associated with each other. For example, catalytic transfer hydrogenation reactions have been used widely in the reduction of a variety of functional groups of organic compounds, such as the reduction of ketones and aldehydes (Ram S.; Spicer, L. D.; Tetrahedron Lett. 1988. 29(31). 3741), olefins (Ranu, B. C.; Sarkar, A.; Tetrahedron, Lett. 1994. 35(46), 8649), azides (Gartiser, T.; Selve, C.; Delpuech, J.-J.; Tetrahedron Lett. 1983, 24(15), 1609), epoxides (Dragovich, P. S.; Prins, T. J.; Zhou, R.; J. Org. Chem. 1995, 60, 4922), nitrates (Barrett, A. G. M.; Spilling, C. D. Tetrahedron Lett. 1988, 29, 5733), and aromatic rings (Balezewski, P.; Joule, J. A. Syn. Commun., 1990, 20, 2815).
A catalytic transfer hydrogenation system typically involves a metal or a metal-complex catalyst such as palladium-carbon, and a hydrogen source such as ammonium formate or cyclohexene. The hydrogen source releases hydrogen or hydride as the reaction proceeds. A major advantage over conventional catalytic hydrogenation, which requires special apparatus for handling hydrogen gas and pressure, is that the reduction is usually conducted under atomspheric pressure without large excess of hydrogen gas. Although there have been many different catalysts and hydrogen sources in catalytic transfer hydrogenation systems, an ammonium formate/palladium on carbon (Pd-C) system is the most versatile and practical catalytic hydrogen transfer agent, and has been used for the reduction of various functionalities (Johnstone, R. A. W.; Wilby, A. H.; Entwistle, I. D. Chem. Rev., 1985, 85, 129). To the best of our knowledge, however, the system has never been applied in combination with a biocatalytic system, or in the presence of biocatalysts such as enzymes or microorganisms.
With the exception of glycine, each of the common amino acids exists as one of two optical isomers, termed levorotatory or dextrorotatory, depending upon the direction in which they cause a plane of polarized light to rotate. By convention, amino acids are also referred to as D- or L- based upon whether the configuration about the xcex1-carbon of the amino acid corresponds to the D- or L- stereoisomer (enantiomer) of glyceraldehyde, the arbitrary standard. Based upon that standard, most naturally-occurring amino acids are L-amino acids, despite that some of them are dextrorotatory when placed in aqueous solution at neutral pH.
On the other hand, amino acid oxidases and amino acid deaminases are classes of enzymes that catalyze the stereoselective oxidation of an amino acid to generate the corresponding ketoacid. According to their stereoselectivity, those enzymes that only oxidize the L-amino acids are called L-amino acid oxidases (or deaminases) while those which act only on the D-amino acids are called D-amino acid oxidases (or deaminases).
In the presence of both L- and D-amino acids, the L-amino acid oxidases (and deaminases) will oxidize only the L-amino acids, leaving the D-amino acids untouched, whereas the D-amino acid oxidases (and deaminases) will do just the opposite. Based upon this highly stereoselective nature, these enzymes have been used in combination with other enzymes or chemical reagents for the stereospecific conversion of amino acids from one enantiomer to the other. L-Amino acid deaminases (and oxidases) have been applied in combination with D-amino acid transaminases for the stereospecific conversion of L-amino acid to D-amino acids. The L-amino acid deaminase catalyzes the conversion of L-amino acids to the xcex1-ketoacids, which feed as substrates to D-amino acid transaminases, and are thus converted the D-amino acids.
Another application involves the use of amino acid oxidase enzymes in combination with sodium borohydride. In this case, an amino acid oxidase catalyzes the stereoselective dehydrogenation of the xcex1-amino group in an amino acid to generate an imine intermediate, which is immediately reduced back to the racemic amine or the racemic amino acid by sodium borohydride present in the system. Because the enzyme acts on only one specific enantiomer of the amino acid without affecting the other, it constantly converts this enantiomer to the racemate while allowing the other enantiomer to accumulate. The end result of this dynamic resolution is the complete conversion of the amino acid from one enantiomer to the other.
For example, the synthesis of L-proline from D-proline using D-amino acid oxidase and sodium borohydride is known. See Huh. et al., Journal of Fermentation and Bioengineering, Vol. 74, No. 3, 189-190 (1992). Similarly, the synthesis of L-pipecolic acid from D-pipecolic acid using D-amino acid oxidase and sodium borohydride also has been described. See Huh, et al., BioSci. Biotech. Biochem., 56 (12), 2081-2082 (1992). The conversion of D-alanine to L-alanine using D-amino acid oxidase and sodium borohydride and the conversion of L-Leucine to D-Leucine using L-amino acid oxidase and sodium borohydride are also known. See Hafner, et al.. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., Vol. 68, No. 5, 987-991 (1971).
However, the use of sodium borohydride in combination with amino acid oxidase enzymes to stereospecifically convert amino acids from one enantiomer to the other has several disadvantages that limit its industrial applications. Sodium borohydride and some of its derivatives are sensitive to water, and easily decompose in acid or neutral pH, at which the amino acid oxidase enzyme has the maximum activity and stability. For the reduction to be effective, the hydride reagent often has to be added slowly, in multiple intervals, over a long period of time, and in very large molar excess. The large excess of borohydrides often leads to rapid deactivation or destruction of the oxidase enzymes, as well as significant increase in the cost structure for a potential industrial process. Adding to the problem is that the reactions are carried out using purified enzymes, which are available only in very small quantities, and at great cost.
Thus, it would be highly desirable to provide a catalytic hydrogenation system in combination with an amino acid oxidase system to effect the stereospecific conversion of amino acids. In this new combination, the imine intermediate generated from the amino acid oxidase catalyzed dehydrogenation would be reduced back to the amino acid by catalytic hydrogenation instead of borohydride reduction. The catalytic hydrogenation system would comprise a metal catalyst and an inexpensive hydrogen donor which together would generate efficient reducing power, without harming the amino acid oxidase enzymes or, more preferably, the microorganism cells which produce these enzymes. Such a catalyst system would allow industrial scale stereospecific conversion of amino acids to their respective enantioners on a practical and cost effective basis.
The present invention provides a catalytic system combining catalytic transfer hydrogenation with amino acid oxidase (or amino acid deaminase) catalyzed oxidation reactions, and a process for stereoselectively converting amino acids from one enantiomer to the other, or from racemic mixture to the optically active isomer. The catalyst system of the present invention preferably includes: (i) a metal, metal salt, or metal complex catalyst; (ii) a hydrogen source; (iii) an enzyme capable of oxidizing said chemical compound at said chiral center, or a microorganism capable of producing an enzyme which is capable of oxidizing said chemical compound at said chiral center, and (iv) an oxidant such as oxygen. The process of the present invention includes the step of treating an amino acid with a catalyst system of the present invention.
The present invention may be used for converting optically active amino acids to their opposite stereoisomers, or transferring racemic amino acids to their optically active stereoisomers. Thus, there is provided herein a catalyst system and a process for producing D-amino acids from their corresponding L-amino acids or racemic mixtures.
In the present invention, a D-amino acid is produced by treating its corresponding L-amino acid, or a racemic mixture, with an amino acid deaminase enzyme in the presence of a metal catalyst, an oxidant, a hydrogen source and, optionally, but preferably, a buffer.
This invention also provides a method for producing a D-amino acid by treating its corresponding L-amino acid or the mixture of D- and L-amino acid with microorganism cells which produce an amino acid deaminase enzyme, in the presence of a metal catalyst, an oxidant, a hydrogen source and, optionally, but preferably, a buffer.
Amino acid oxidases are a class of oxidoreductases that stereoselectively oxidize the alpha-amino group of amino acids to produce the corresponding keto acid. It is believed that the oxidation involves the enzymatic dehydrogenation of the alpha-amino group of the amino acid to form an imine intermediate, which undergoes non-catalyzed hydrolysis to yield the keto acid. The enzymatic oxidation reaction is stereoselective; thus, only the L- or D-amino acid can be oxidized by a given amino acid oxidase enzyme. The same reaction also is catalyzed by amino acid deaminase enzymes. Within a certain pH range, it is possible to subject the imine intermediate to a metal catalyzed hydrogenation reaction to regenerate the amino acid in racemic form.
It has been discovered that certain catalytic transfer hydrogenation systems may be used in combination with amino acid oxidase enzymes and amino acid deaminase enzymes without affecting their enzymatic activity and stability. Surprisingly, it also has been discovered that these metal catalyst systems are compatible with microorganism cells, including mutant strains of E. coli, which are capable of producing such enzymes. Thus, according to the present invention, it is possible to convert amino acids to their corresponding enantiomers by treatment with a catalyst system including a catalytic transfer hydrogenation system and a biocatalytic oxidation system, without destroying the biocatalyst.
In a preferred embodiment of the invention, ammonium formate is included in the catalyst system both as a buffer salt for the biocatalyst and as a hydrogen donor for catalytic transfer hydrogenation. The metal catalysts, in combination with ammonium formate, form hydrogen transfer systems which are compatible with the enzymes or microorganism cells. The usefulness of this invention is not limited to the stereospecific amino acid conversion reaction described above. Instead, the potential applicability of this invention is much broader. For example, because metal catalyzed hydrogen transfer hydrogenations using a proper hydrogen donor such as ammonium formate are known for the reduction of a large variety of organic chemical groups such as olefins, ketones, aldehydes, nitriles and aromatic rings, the catalyst system of this invention may be coupled with enzymes or microorganism cells which use these compounds as substrates, or produce them as products, to provide chemical and stereoselective reactions involving a large number of chemical compounds.
The catalyst system of the present invention has been applied to the conversion of L-amino acids to D-amino acids with good yield and high optical purity. The percentage enantiomeric excess (ee) of a D-amino acid produced over its corresponding L-amino acid according to the present invention may be determined by subtracting the amount of L-amino acid present from the amount of the corresponding D-amino acid present, dividing the result by the total amount of D- and L- amino acid, and multiplying by 100.
In a preferred embodiment, an L-amino acid or a racemic mixture of an amino acid is converted to a D-amino acid by treating the L-amino acid or the racemic amino acid with amino acid deaminase and ammonium formate/Pd-C according to the process of this invention. The resultant D-amino acid is recovered from the reaction to yield the D-amino acid. The D-amino acids produced according to the present invention may be isolated using procedures well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. For example, the reaction mixture is filtered or centrifuged to remove both the bio- and chemical catalyst; the filtrate or the supernatant is concentrated by vacuum distillation to a small volume; and the product is precipitated out by pH adjustment and further purified by recrystallization. Other conventional amino acid isolation methods can be applied, such as extracting the product solution with a proper water immiscible organic solvent, including n-butanol, or passing the product solution through an ion-exchange column.
In a preferred embodiment, the catalyst system of this invention includes a buffer. Suitable buffers for use in the present invention include, but are not limited to, those which are effective in a pH range of about 5.0 to about 8.0, including ammonium formate, sodium or potassium phosphates, tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane hydrochlorides (TRIS Hcl), and mixtures thereof. Preferably, the buffer is ammonium formate.
In another preferred embodiment, the catalyst system of the present invention includes a microorganism capable of producing an enzyme that is capable of oxidizing a chiral center of a chiral chemical compound. In this embodiment, a catalyst system is provided without the need to isolate the oxidase enzyme. Preferably, the metal catalyst and the microorganism cells are compatible in that neither has a significant detrimental effect on the activity of the other.
The enzymes which may be used in the present invention preferably include those which are compatible with the metal catalyst system of this invention. Exemplary enzymes include amino acid oxidase enzymes, amino acid deaminase enzymes, which are generally available commercially, and mixtures thereof. For example, both D- and L-amino acid oxidases from several different origins can be purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Fine Chemicals. The choice of enzymes to be used in the process of this invention will depend upon the particular stereospecific reaction desired. For example, where it is desired to convert an L-amino acid to a D-amino acid, the preferred enzyme is an L-amino acid oxidase or deaminase.
Microorganism cells which may be used in the present invention preferably include those which produce the desired enzyme and are compatible with the metal catalyst system of this invention. More preferably, the microorganism cells are E. coli cells which produce the desired enzyme. In a particular preferred embodiment, the cells are E. coli cells which produce an L-amino acid deaminase enzyme. A strain of E. coli which produces an L-amino acid deaminase enzyme can be prepared by introducing into the cells a plasmid bearing the gene which encodes for synthesis of L-amino acid deaminase. A plasmid bearing such a gene can be prepared as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,728,555, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein.
The metal catalysts which may be used in the present invention preferably include those which are compatible with the enzymes and microorganism cells of this invention. Exemplary metal catalysts include palladium on carbon (Pd-C), palladium on barium sulfate, palladium black, and mixtures thereof. Preferably, the metal catalyst is palladium on carbon.
The oxidants which may be used in the present invention include atmospheric oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, NAD, and mixtures thereof. Preferably, the oxidant is atmospheric oxygen.
The hydrogen sources which may be used in the present invention include ammonium formate, sodium formate, triethylammonium formate, H2, and mixtures thereof. Preferably, the hydrogen source is ammonium formate. When ammonium formate is used as a hydrogen source and a buffer, preferably the concentration of ammonium formate is about 0.1 M to about 3.0 M.
The process of the present invention may be carried out at temperature and pH ranges within which the catalyst and enzymes are stable. The preferred temperature range is about 15xc2x0 C. to about 40xc2x0 C. More preferably, the temperature range is about 20xc2x0 C. to about 37xc2x0 C. The preferred pH range is about 5.0 to about 8.0, more preferably about 6.0 to about 7.0.
The concentration of metal catalyst that provides a catalytic amount of the catalyst in the process of this invention will depend upon the particular metal catalyst employed, and preferably is in a range of about 1.0 mole % to about 100 mole %, based upon the weight of the reactant. The preferred concentration range for the palladium on carbon catalyst is about 10 mole % to about 50 mole %.
An especially preferred catalyst system has a ratio of palladium on carbon catalyst to substrate between about 0.001 to 1.0 and about 0.1 to 1.0.
The concentration of enzyme or microorganism cell that provides a catalytic amount of a desired enzyme in the process of this invention preferably is in a range of about 0.001 weight % to about 10.0 weight %, based upon the weight of the total reaction mixture. The most preferred concentration range for the enzyme or microorganism cells is about 0.01 weight % to about 1.0 weight %, based upon the weight of the total reaction mixture.
The concentration of buffer that may be used in the present invention is that which will maintain the pH of the reaction at about 5.0 to about 8.0. Preferably, the buffer will be present in an amount effective to maintain the pH of the reaction at about 6.0. This can be accomplished, for example, by using an effective amount of a 1.0 molar ammonium formate buffer.
The examples that follow are intended as illustrations of certain preferred embodiments of the invention, and no limitation of the invention is implied.